Asses the Claim that the Countries Using thr Euro Constitute an Essay

Asses the Claim that the Countries Using thr Euro Constitute an Optimal Currency Area - Essay Example This paper approves that Euro was considered as a stable currency before the late 2000s when economic crisis started to happen. The current sovereign crisis wherein many European countries are finding it relatively difficult to pay off their obligations on time therefore has created strong doubts over the sovereign debt crisis. Greece specially faced critical challenges in terms of paying off its debts and resultantly this has created strong pressure on Euro to decline against US Dollar in international market. This has also suggested that the Euro may not be an optimal currency region if it continues to perform in its current form. This suggests the absence of physical restrictions to travel and facilitate the free movement of the labor across the borders. It also requires the low cultural barriers as well as the institutional arrangements make it relatively easier for the labor to move freely. Labor mobility therefore is considered as a hedge against the adverse shocks when exchange rates are fixed or cannot be adjusted easily. It has been observed that the labor mobility within Euro area is relatively low as compared to the countries like US and Japan. This report makes a conclusion that Euro has to fulfill four important criteria before it can form into one of the cohesive and efficient single currency areas in the world. Apart from free capital mobility all other criteria suggest that the countries in the region may not be ready and hence countries comprising of the region where Euro is the single currency may not be constituted as an optimal currency area.... two models are based upon the concepts of stationary expectations as well as the International Risk Sharing.( Kenen, 1969) One of the key attribute of an optimal currency region therefore is based on the fact that it is often larger than a single country. The creation of Euro has been considered as an engineered attempt to provide a case study to test the theory of how to create an optimal currency region as individual countries in the region may not have been sufficient enough to form an optimal currency area. History of Euro Euro is the single currency in Eurozone comprising of the 17 of the 27 countries in the European Union area. Officially launched in late 1990s, over the period of time, Euro has become one of the most dominating currencies in the world. At the start of Euro as a currency, it was widely expected that the Euro will replace US Dollar as the most traded currency in the world. Backed up by the economic powers of the European economic powers in order to ensure that r egion is served by a single currency.( Richard; & Wyplosz, 2004.) Euro is officially administrated by the European Central Bank and the Eurosystem whereas the ECB has the sole responsibility to set the setting up the monetary policy for the region whereas the Eurosystem has the mandate of printing and minting currency notes as well as coins. Euro and Optimal Currency Area As discussed above, Euro was considered as a stable currency before the late 2000s when economic crisis started to happen. The current sovereign crisis wherein many European countries are finding it relatively difficult to pay off their obligations on time therefore has created strong doubts over the sovereign debt crisis. Greece specially faced critical challenges in terms of paying off its debts and resultantly this has

Leaders and subordinates in Spain Essay Example for Free

Leaders and subordinates in Spain Essay Influenced by its collectivist past, family values, a sense of identity and belonging to a group, are constitutive parts of society in Spain. They care for each other in society like a family. For many Spanish people, the family is effectively a replacement for the state. Generally, Spaniards are very conservative and they will resist making decisions on hazardous matters, particularly if the consequences of their decision would affect other people. Thus, most Spaniards will look for support and approval of family, friends and co-workers before acting on their own. The Spanish believe if you are not a part of a group, neighbourhood, town or business organisation then you are not an integral part of society. This important aspect of the Spanish collectivist culture might restrict business activities and force the outsider and visitors to the country to bear down their outsider status by fitting into a group. However, regarding personal attributes, individualism is highly valued in Spain, along with an emphasis on character and social status. Therefore, personal qualities, appearance, image and personal relationships are extremely substantial elements in modern Spanish culture. Also, personal attributes and character are frequently valued as highly as technical ability, experience or professional competence. While being rather collectivists in their private lives the Spanish show distinct individualism in business context. When doing business in Spain, you will discover that individualism is especially predominant in management, where Spanish managers are less inclined to prefer group decision making and team orientation, as sharing the burden of decision-making is seen as a sign of weakness. Motivation is based on individual rather than collective relationships. The fact that only the individual in highest authority makes the final decision indicates that decision-making can become very slow and tedious, for many levels of management will have to be consulted in order to analyse the proposition. Therefore, it is crucial to maintain a good relationship with these intermediaries in order to succeed. Spain being a feministic society points to a low level of differentiation and discrimination between genders in Spanish society. Machismo is the word for male dominance, and the culture of old men who created it has changed dramatically. Spain has become a very equalitarian society where women are present at universities and work. However, men yet hold the majority of positions within companies. The reason for that is that Spanish men still restrain to treat women as equals in society. Many women in Spain are career oriented and seek high positions in society. Their social and educational status often assigns the role they eventually play in business. Despite the advancement women have made up to date, the change of women trying to achieve higher positions is progressing very slowly, due to the major barrier of it being the mentality of the females themselves. An example for changed/changing attitudes is Soledad Becerril who became not only the first mayoress in the early 90s but also a symbol for many women in Spain of how Spanish females have made progress in the last years. She was also the first woman to become minister in the government, in 1981. And that is very significant of how Spain has changed and how it continues to do so. Furthermore, masculinity and femininity can be referred to the goals that are aimed for in professional life. Spain being a feministic society indicates issues of security of the job, good employer-employee relationship, pleasant cooperation with the colleagues and friendly work environment. Also, Spanish managers tend to pay more attention to consensus and apart from that, they like to rely on their intuition. HAMPDEN-TURNER TROMPENAARS Spaniards tend to particularism rather than universalism. Therefore, at work Spanish seek gratification through personal relationships, especially with their superiors. Charismatic leaders find it easy to put their personal stamp on every area in a business. Most of the time job descriptions in Spain have a different function compared to the job descriptions in other countries. In Spain they seldom serve for selecting an employee, but subsequently they will be tailor-made for the favoured candidate. Spanish culture tolerates even advocates the expression of emotions (affectivity), also in the business environment. The admiration and display of heated, vital and animated expressions are just as common as fluent and dramatic delivery of statements in Spain. People from diffuse cultures carry their status everywhere; your boss remains your boss and will expect the same respect even if you meet him/her at the gym. Spain indicates to be a specific culture, where official relationships are carefully isolated from relationships of other nature. Using the previous example it means that you may show respect to your boss at the office but his status will not follow him outside the office, and he/she may well ask you for advice. This explains the Spanish being paradoxical in their decision making and in their relation to the community. As a consequence of the fact that Spaniards separate work and personal matters, nobody would take work-related criticism personally. Another theory is that people from diffuse cultures prefer to circle around and establish a relationship before any deal is done; those from specific cultures would rather get straight to the point, focus on the deal first and the relationship will flow from that. This definition contradicts the Spanish being a specific society as they need long discussions prior getting down to business and want to know the person they do business with. Therefore, networks are quite important. For Spanish, status is a thing that is given to them because of what they are (ascribed). It does not matter what you do but what or who you are. Ultimately, status and respect are conferred with the aid of family ties and connections. Concepts like bien educado (good education) and enchufado (good connections) distinguish this phenomenon. Achievement-oriented concepts like pay for performance cause for incomprehension in societies like Spain. FUKUYAMA Fukuyama suggests Spain to be a low-trust society where workers are isolated by a series of bureaucratic rules. He describes Spain as a society with strong families and family businesses, a strong state and large foreign owned companies, where hierarchies are necessary in order to force those by distinct rules and measures, who do not act out ethical codes. Evidence of different leadership styles in Spain backs up this theory. A study on Leadership from a Spanish perspectivei drafted by Instituto de Empresa and Deloitte stated that 56% of Spanish Directors prefer a participative leadership style. The report shows that future leaders have to act as coaches, and they must issue their subordinates with the skills and knowhow they need to work efficiently with their teams. However, participative leadership is not the norm among the Spanish directors. Therefore, there is a need for adapting the other styles and make them more participative which requires great commitment from the leaders. The styles least preferred by Spanish senior managers are those based on compulsion with little or no participation of employees and exception-based management where the director only steps in to sort out mistakes. Leaders of relatively new businesses are better at leadership styles, which are based on objectives and development. Where different sectors are concerned, the report unveils how directors in the financial sector tend to use leadership styles that are more direct, transactional and less oriented to learning. While companies in the technology sector give more importance to coaching and vision. MONOCHRONIC vs. POLYCHRONIC Spaniards can be classed as polychronic where nothing seems solid or firm, and there are always changes right up to the very last minute or even in plans for the future. Polychronic cultures are unconventional and flexible with time because it is not seen as a resource or as opportunity cost. Usually start times are flexible and schedules are unrushed. For example, it is not considered to be impolite to keep people waiting, as long as it does not exceed 30 minutes. Since time is also non-linear Spanish tend to manage several tasks at once, often in an unplanned sequence (e. g. salespeople in stores talk to several people at once rather than give only one customer their attention and taking people in turn; a meeting can be interrupted by a phone call; etc.). Another significant cultural difference is the smaller radius of personal space in Spain. Spaniards are most likely not to appologise when bumping into each other or pushing their way through crowds, which can be a shock to visitors from foreign countries. In the business environment, when it comes to forecasting, plans are often based on assumptions, intuition and experience because every day is regarded as unpredictable. Spaniards in the business environment usually make decisions based on judgement, experience and political realities. The supervisory style allows for the rules to be circumvented, whereas style and creativity are highly valued. Titles describe a persons status, which people take pride in, causing great motivation for competition in organisations. Additionally, personal feelings affect the performance. Spanish managers feel that the employees must be watched, thus giving them the total control where also mistakes can be blamed on other people. However, the supervision is based on trust and some power is still delegated. LEADERSHIP STYLE Generally, the leadership style in Spain, in terms of concern for production and concern for people, demonstrates a high concern for people and little concern for production, whereby they try to avoid conflicts and concentrate on being liked, even at the expense of production. Managers in Spain are acquiring some qualities they look up to in other leaders. However, this contradicts with the theory stated above. Nevertheless, evidence suggest that Spanish leaders are still concerned about their leadership style. One of the conclusions of the first study on i Leadership from a Spanish perspectivei drafted by Instituto de Empresa and Deloitte indicated that 75% of Spains directors say that they regularly, or almost always use coaching, a personalised style that focuses on employee development. These leadership criteria are essential when it comes to competitiveness and organisations survival. 41% of directors stated that their preferred style of leadership is contingent reinforcement, which rewards subordinates for their achievements. 37% use the goal-oriented style, based on meeting challenges. Analysing the relations between leaders and subordinates in Spain showed that only 46% of Spanish leaders have a good concept of their subordinates. These leaders tend to use coaching as their preferred style of leadership. 26% of survey participants, however, point out having a quite negative concept of their subordinates. These leaders show a clear inclination to use directive and transactional management styles. Finally, the results of the study show clearly that Spanish development-oriented leaders are also very concerned about developing and educating their subordinates.

America Needs More Government Programs to Pull People Out of Poverty :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

A frightened young girl sits in a doctor’s office ready to receive the news that will change her life forever. She has made foolish choices which will leave her with a child, no husband, and an uphill struggle against poverty. In high school, she dreamed of college, a career, and later a family. Now the order has been reversed as she takes on a new role — a single mom. This role will keep her from graduating from high school and leave her without an education. She will never have a well-paying career and she will face unending struggles to support her child. It has often been believed that hard work will lead to financial success. The underprivileged look to figures such as Andrew Carnegie and an enticing story of rags to riches. Americans turn their eyes toward a dream of being a great entrepreneur and establishing a legacy of wealth. The typical citizen believes that with hard work, obstacles can be overcome with a life of luxury as the prize. Unexpected obstacles, such as pregnancy at a young age, are not calculated into this dream. In addition, society tells us that the poor are in a state of poverty because the lower class is not willing to do the hard work that is necessary to acquire any kind of high-esteemed position. This, however, is not the case. A single mother, like the sixteen year-old girl, can work long hours and multiple jobs but still not make an adequate amount of money to support her child. Poverty exists in a cyclical fashion, as David Shipler shows: A run-down apartment can exacerbate a child’s asthma, which leads to a call for an ambulance, which generates a medical bill that cannot be paid, which ruins a credit record, which hikes the interest rate on an auto loan, which forces the purchase of an unreliable used car, which jeopardizes a mother’s punctuality at work, which limits her promotions and earning capacity, which confines her to poor housing (11). Something must be done to aid the girl so that she might provide for her new baby. However, segregation exists between the various income levels in America. The wealthy have little to no interaction with the financially unstable, yet according to Barbara Ehrenreich: the affluent exert inordinate power over the lives of the less affluent, and especially over the lives of the poor, determining what public services will be available, if any, what minimum wage, what laws governing the treatment of labor (216). America Needs More Government Programs to Pull People Out of Poverty :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays A frightened young girl sits in a doctor’s office ready to receive the news that will change her life forever. She has made foolish choices which will leave her with a child, no husband, and an uphill struggle against poverty. In high school, she dreamed of college, a career, and later a family. Now the order has been reversed as she takes on a new role — a single mom. This role will keep her from graduating from high school and leave her without an education. She will never have a well-paying career and she will face unending struggles to support her child. It has often been believed that hard work will lead to financial success. The underprivileged look to figures such as Andrew Carnegie and an enticing story of rags to riches. Americans turn their eyes toward a dream of being a great entrepreneur and establishing a legacy of wealth. The typical citizen believes that with hard work, obstacles can be overcome with a life of luxury as the prize. Unexpected obstacles, such as pregnancy at a young age, are not calculated into this dream. In addition, society tells us that the poor are in a state of poverty because the lower class is not willing to do the hard work that is necessary to acquire any kind of high-esteemed position. This, however, is not the case. A single mother, like the sixteen year-old girl, can work long hours and multiple jobs but still not make an adequate amount of money to support her child. Poverty exists in a cyclical fashion, as David Shipler shows: A run-down apartment can exacerbate a child’s asthma, which leads to a call for an ambulance, which generates a medical bill that cannot be paid, which ruins a credit record, which hikes the interest rate on an auto loan, which forces the purchase of an unreliable used car, which jeopardizes a mother’s punctuality at work, which limits her promotions and earning capacity, which confines her to poor housing (11). Something must be done to aid the girl so that she might provide for her new baby. However, segregation exists between the various income levels in America. The wealthy have little to no interaction with the financially unstable, yet according to Barbara Ehrenreich: the affluent exert inordinate power over the lives of the less affluent, and especially over the lives of the poor, determining what public services will be available, if any, what minimum wage, what laws governing the treatment of labor (216).

Leadership in Julius Caesar Essay

In Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare, Cassius is shown as the leader of the conspirators. Brutus, as chose by Cassius, becomes a secondary leader in the plan to eliminate Caesar. Cassius and Brutus portray specific leadership qualities in very different ways. Brutus shows he is a more sufficient leader by his bravery, integrity and selflessness. Cassius’ lack of bravery is matched up to that of Brutus at the time of their deaths during the Battle of Philippi in the fifth act. Just before Cassius’ death, he says to Pindarus, â€Å"O, coward that I am, to live so long, / To see my best friend ta’en before my face!† â€Å"Stand not to answer: Here, take though the hilts; / And, when my face is cover’d, as ‘tis now, / Guide thou the sword.† (V.III.2536-2537, 2546-2548) Cassius believes Brutus to be dead and assumes this means the end of the battle; the outcome not in his favor. Cassius has his servant, Pindarus, kill him rather than havi ng the courage to kill himself. On the other hand, Brutus, hearing that Cassius has died, admits that they, the conspirators, have been defeated. Brutus bravely kills himself by his own doing rather than to someone else do it for him. â€Å"Hold then my sword, and turn away thy face, / While I do run upon it. Wilt thou, Strato?† (V.IV.2728-2729) Brutus had shown more bravery than Cassius by having his own death carried out by himself. Brutus also has a greater integrity than Cassius, shown by Brutus’ intentions for the conspirators. Brutus tells Cassius, â€Å"We all stand up against the spirit of Caesar, / And in the spirit of men there is no blood.† (II.I.787-788) Brutus is explaining to Cassius that the point should not to be to kill Caesar, as Cassius wants, but to kill what Caesar stands for. Brutus says, â€Å"Let us be sacrificers, not butchers.†(II.I.786) It can be assumed that Brutus wants to kill Caesar with honor; that he wants to be seen as someone fighting for a cause, not j ust a murderer. Brutus shows higher respect toward Caesar as a person, which displays a greater integrity. Brutus is a more selfless person than Cassius and has a greater passion for Rome plus its people. At Caesars funeral, Brutus tells the plebeians, â€Å"If then that friend demands / Why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer: / Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved / Rome more. Had you rather Caesar were living and / Die all slaves, than that Caesar were dead, to live / All free men?† (III.II.1552-1558) Brutus’ intentions were really to help the people of  Rome, rather than Cassius who secretly wanted the crown for himself. The people of Rome did not want a dictator so Brutus’ plan was to create a republic. Cassius, though, did not actually care for helping the people of Rome, he was only after the power that Caesar had. He says. â€Å"That part of Tyranny that I do bear / I can shake off at pleasure.† (I.III.525-526) Here, Cassius is saying he can’t bear the fact of someone having more power than him. Cassius implies he’d rather kill himself than be beneath Caesar. Cassius would have been miserable if Caesar became king and became a tyrant. Brutus proved himself as a more selfless person by the way he cared for the people. Cassius was set at such a high place of being a leader, but Brutus proved he was better fit for the title. Brutus displayed leadership qualities such as bravery, integrity and selflessness that Cassius lacked. Brutus had the ability to become a leader of Rome, where he could do what was right for the people rather than gain more power for himself.

The Wars, Earth, Wind, Fire, and Water

In the book the wars Timothy uses the elements of earth, wind, fire and as double sided meanings were one is the challenge of war and one is the strategy Robert used the element to keep him sane. If we look at earth for Roberts soldier side. We can see that it is always refereed to the mud, which was one of the soldier’s greatest enemies. It caused many soldiers to drown as well as slow down soldiers during artillery strikes. For Roberts’s normal side we see how he frees Rodwells toad in the mud showing earth’s nature side. The Earth at one point traps Robert making Robert have to struggle free harder and harder faster and faster causing Robert to be temporary blind from the gas. The earth also resembled Roberts’s love for nature since he used animals to resemble the people he knew to keep some sanity during the war this though led to Roberts blindness at the end of the war. Robert blinded himself so much in the belief that he used this to save the horses, which was one of the first things he ever killed losing his innocence. I believe this was Roberts way of saying he wanted his innocence back and wasn’t able to keep the soldier face on any more. Finley also uses the air as an element for its life giving properties or the unluckiness of bringing deathly gases. During the war Robert uses the air to see his childhood †¦the mist was filled with rabbits and Rowena and his father and his mother and the whole of his past life—birth and death and childhood. He could breathe them in and breathe them out. †(p. 14). During the battles of war though Robert is constantly running and hiding from the air to live but at the same time everytime he breaths he remembers his home, â€Å"Slithering over the crater’s rim—a pale blue fog appeared. Like a veil his mother might’ve worn. †(P. 137). From this I believe he uses the air to think for what he has to live for at home. He uses this to stay sane as well as give him something to live for increasing his chances of survival. At the ending of the book they say you can see the air he his breathing which is Robert finally being home as his own sane self. For fire it is both chaos as well as what brings back Roberts human side. In the barn Robert suffers serious burns to the face which is supposed to resemble his soldier face disappearing. After his time in the hospital Robert lives a normal life away from war where we can finally see him smiling in a photo of him with his burnt face.

Children Transition In Life Children And Young People Essay Essays

Children Transition In Life Children And Young People Essay Essays Children Transition In Life Children And Young People Essay Essay Children Transition In Life Children And Young People Essay Essay Bereavement This can be a really traumatic clip for a kid or immature individual, mourning can impact concentration, memory and acquisition. New sibling A ambitious passage for immature kids, it may impact the kid s behaviour as they may move out, desiring to derive attending. Parental Separation This can impact kids and immature people in many different ways and must be dealt with in consequently in a sensitive mode. Traveling Home Traveling house can be a large turbulence, it can impact the kid or immature individual because they are being taken out of their safe and familiar environment. Illness or Injury Whether it be the child/young individual straight affected or a household member, either manner the kid may necessitate assist covering with the alteration of fortunes. Divorce This is a hard period for a kid or immature individual, they may be affected in many different ways and must hold eternal emotional support. Taken into the attention system This can be a hard passage where the school and societal services must work together to do the procedure tally every bit swimmingly as possible for a immature kid. Abuse A ; Neglect Maltreatment and disregard can impact all countries of development. Children and immature people are affected by maltreatment in different ways, results of maltreatment vary. Traveling states Traveling states can hold a negative affect upon kids and immature people, socially, academically and emotionally. These types of passages are by and large unplanned, or happen with small or no warning and in bend can be damaging if non responded and dealt with in the right manner. These unplanned passages will besides nevertheless affect kids and immature people in different ways. Some kids and immature people may besides see passages such as: The debut of Step Siblings Changing schools Change of carer Pet deceasing Parental alteration of spouse It is a known fact that all kids and immature people are faced with passages, although some may be affected positively and some negatively. When kids are faced with planned or unplanned passages they may see feelings such as choler, guilt, rejection and unhappiness. Other ways that kids and immature people may demo the affects made by passage i.e. attending seeking behaviour, friendship/peer jobs, and going withdrawn and quiet or exposing uncharacteristic wonts. Children and immature people traveling from primary to secondary high school may happen it difficult to set to being taught more officially. They are all of a sudden expected to analyze a wider assortment of topics, to take on more duty and sometimes do a new circle of friendly relationships. Involving alterations like larning more and holding less free clip. For most kids and immature people traveling through a passage such as traveling school can hold an impact on their acquisition and accomplishments, sometimes impacting them academically. Suddenly a kid is removed from their comfort zone and taken off from a familiar environment, from their friends and instructors etc. The kid is wholly thrown of path and set into a new environment which can be highly hard for a kid or immature individual to set excessively. It can hold affects on a kid s acquisition, self esteem and sometimes ensuing in them no longer desiring to travel to school, although some kids and immature people do adap t good to this type of passage. For illustration when I was go toing secondary school a immature miss moved from her original school due to her parents traveling state, when she began go toing my secondary school she settled in and adapted really good, turn outing to be rather popular with her equals. It appeared to hold a positive affect on the immature miss but so all of a sudden her equals turned against her, this so resulted in the immature miss going a victim of torture and intimidation. She became unhappy, quiet, withdrawn and reserved. Her parents decided it was in their kid s best involvements to alter schools one time once more, where she began to recover her ego regard and assurance which was highly affected by the intimidation, altering schools and traveling states. Fortunately the following alteration of school had a positive affect on the immature miss s instruction and larning which dramatically improved. She began doing friends, displayed more assurance and began to b ask go toing school once more. Traveling school can hold a negative and/or positive impact on a kid or immature individual s behaviour and development. In the get downing a alteration of school proved to hold a negative affect upon the immature miss but fortuitously the 2nd period of traveling school resulted in holding a positive affect upon her, bettering her behaviour and development. Therefore I feel it is of import that a kid s parents consider their kid s felicity before doing this pick, due to the positive and negative affects it can hold on a kid and immature individual. Although altering schools unluckily can non ever be prevented due to unanticipated fortunes in life. Parental Change Of Partner A parent presenting their new spouse to their kid can besides be a challenging and hard clip. It can ensue in impacting a kid or immature individual s behaviour and development. For illustration when I was a adolescent my female parent introduced me to her new long term spouse which at the clip felt like a alien was seeking to replace my male parent, I besides felt that her new spouse was taking off my female parents attending. Suddenly a new important figure was brought into the household. From my personal experience it had a bad affect on my behaviour and development as I began to misconduct, fume, drink and act out because I was highly angry interior and wanted to recover my female parents attending which I no longer felt I had. I became an angry, down, withdrawn and stray adolescent, clearly exposing marks that I was negatively affected, no longer being my usual bubbly, happy ego. My instruction besides began enduring because of this passage as I could no longer concentrate in school. However this does non ever have a negative impact on kids and immature people but it does necessitate to be handled carefully and sensitively. It can be a really ambitious clip for the kid and immature individual but besides for the parents, household members and anybody else involved.

Niels Bohr Biographical Profile

Niels Bohr Biographical Profile Niels Bohr  is one of the major voices in the early development of quantum mechanics. In the early twentieth century, his Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, in Denmark, was a center for some of the most important revolutionary thinking in formulating and studying the discoveries and insights related to the growing information about the quantum realm. Indeed, for the majority of the twentieth century, the dominant interpretation of quantum physics was known as the Copenhagen interpretation. Early Years Niels Henrik David Bohr was born on Oct. 7, 1885, in Copenhagen, Denmark. He received a doctorate from Copenhagen University in 1911. In August of 1912, Bohr married Margrethe Norlund after they had met two years before. In 1913, he developed the Bohr model of atomic structure, which introduced the theory of electrons orbiting around the atomic nucleus. His model involved the electrons being contained in quantized energy states so that when they drop from one state to another, energy is emitted. This work became central to quantum physics and it for this which he was awarded the 1922 Nobel Prize for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them. Copenhagen In 1916, Bohr became a professor at Copenhagen University. In 1920, he was appointed director of the new Institute of Theoretical Physics, later renamed the Niels Bohr Institute. In this position, he was in a position to be instrumental in building the theoretical framework of quantum physics. The standard model of quantum physics throughout the first half of the century became known as the Copenhagen interpretation, although several other interpretations now exist. Bohrs careful, thoughtful manner of approaching was colored with a playful personality, as clear in some famous Niels Bohr quotes. Bohr Einstein Debates Albert Einstein was a known critic of quantum physics, and he frequently challenged Bohrs views on the subject. Through their prolonged and spirited debate, the two great thinkers helped refine a century-long understanding of quantum physics. One of the most famous outcomes of this discussion was Einsteins famous quote that God does not play dice with the universe, to which Bohr is said to have replied, Einstein, stop telling God what to do! The debate was cordial, if spirited. In a 1920 letter, Einstein said to Bohr, Not often in life has a human being caused me such joy by his mere presence as you did. On a more productive note, the physics world pays more attention to the outcome of these debates that led to valid research questions: an attempted counter-example that Einstein proposed known as the EPR paradox. The goal of the paradox was to suggest that the quantum indeterminacy of quantum mechanics led to an inherent non-locality. This was quantified years later in Bells theorem, which is an experimentally-accessible formulation of the paradox. Experimental tests have confirmed the non-locality that Einstein created the thought experiment to refute. Bohr World War II One of Bohrs students was Werner Heisenberg, who became the leader of the German atomic research project during World War II. During a somewhat famous private meeting, Heisenberg visited with Bohr in Copenhagen in 1941, the details of which have been a matter of scholarly debate since neither ever spoke freely of the meeting, and the few references have conflicts. Bohr escaped arrest by German police in 1943, eventually making it to the United States where he worked at Los Alamos on the Manhattan Project, though implications are that his role was primarily that of a consultant. Nuclear Energy Final Years Bohr returned to Copenhagen after the war and spent the rest of his life advocating the peaceful use of nuclear energy before dying on Nov. 18, 1962.

An Overview of Chinas Traffic Troubles

An Overview of China's Traffic Troubles China hasn’t always had a problem with traffic, but over the past couple of decades, as China rapidly urbanizes, the country’s urban denizens have had to adapt their lives to a new phenomenon: gridlock. How Bad Is China’s Traffic Problem? It’s really bad. You may have heard about the China National Highway 10 traffic jam on the news back in 2010; it was 100 kilometers long and lasted ten days, involving thousands of cars. But outside of the mega-jams, most cities are plagued with daily traffic that rivals the worst gridlock in Western cities. And thats despite a plethora of affordable public transportation options and anti-traffic legislation in many cities that mandates (for example) that cars with even and odd-numbered license plates must drive on alternating days, so only half of the city’s cars can legally take to the road at any given time. Of course, China’s urban traffic jams are also a major factor in its pollution problems. Why Is Traffic in China so Bad? There are a number of reasons for China’s traffic congestion woes: Like most older cities around the world, many of Chinas cities were not designed for cars. They were also not designed to support the massive populations they now boast (Beijing, for example, has more than 20 million people). As a result, in many cities, the roads are simply not big enough.Cars are considered a status symbol. In China, buying a car often isn’t as much about convenience as it is about showing that you can buy a car because you’re enjoying a successful career. Lots of white-collar workers in Chinese cities who might otherwise be satisfied with public transportation buy cars in the name of keeping up with (and impressing) the Joneses, and once they’ve got the cars, they feel obliged to use them.China’s roads are full of new drivers. Even a decade ago, cars were far less common than they are now, and if you go back in time twenty years. China didn’t break the two million vehicle mark until around the year 2000, but a decade later it had more than five million. That means that at any time, a significant percentage of the people driving on China’s roads only have a few years of experience. Sometimes, that leads to questionable driving decisions, and that can cause gridlock when those decisions lead to blocked roads for one reason or another. China’s driver education is not great. Driver education schools often only teach driving on closed courses, so new graduates are literally taking to the roads for the first time when they get behind the wheel. And because of corruption in the system, some new drivers haven’t taken any classes at all. As a result, China has a lot of accidents: its traffic fatality rate per 100,000 cars is 36, which is more than double the United States, and several times more than European countries like the UK, France, Germany, and Spain (which all have rates under 10).There are just too many people. Even with great driver education, wider roads, and fewer people buying cars, traffic jams would still be likely in a city like Beijing, which is host to more than twenty million people. What Does the Chinese Government Do About Traffic? The government has worked hard to create public transportation infrastructure that takes pressure off cities roads. Nearly every major city in China is building or expanding a subway system, and the prices of these systems are often subsidized to make them extremely enticing. Beijing’s subway, for example, costs as little as 3 RMB ($0.45 as of March 2019). Chinese cities also generally have extensive bus networks, and there are buses going virtually everywhere you could imagine. The government has also worked to improve long-distance travel, building new airports and rolling out a massive network of high-speed trains designed to get people where they’re going faster and keep them off the highways. Finally, city governments have also taken restrictive measures to limit the number of cars on the road, like Beijing’s even-odd rule, which stipulates that only cars with even- or odd-numbered license plates can be on the road on any given day (it alternates). What Do Regular People Do About Traffic? They avoid it as best they can. People who want to get where they’re going quickly and reliably generally take public transportation if they’re traveling in a city around rush hour. Biking is also a common way of avoiding the gridlock if you’re headed somewhere nearby. People also tend to be accommodating when it comes to the realities of rush-hour traffic in China; taxis, for example, often pick up more than one passenger at a time during busy hours to ensure they’re not spending hours sitting in traffic with a single fare. And Chinese subways get jam-packed with passengers during rush hour. It’s uncomfortable, but people have put it with it. Spending 30 minutes getting home in an uncomfortable subway car beats spending 3 hours in a slightly-more-comfortable regular car, at least for most people.

Global Leadership and Influence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Global Leadership and Influence - Essay Example From the discussion it is clear that  one method of improving global leadership effectiveness is to restructure the organisation to include more employee empowerment and autonomy in their individual job roles. This process is known as decentralisation where lower-level employees are free to express their opinions and innovations to assist in achieving business success. â€Å"Decentralised companies result in empowerment, provide more procedural fairness to employees and provide faster decision-making†.This study stresses that under Hofstede’s model of cultural dimensions, there are collectivists and individualists who have radically different values. Collectivists value group loyalty and generally view themselves and the organisation as a family-oriented environment. Human resources leadership in the global environment must recognise this fact when dealing with workers from this type of cultural background and develop group focus and group rewards to fit these cultura l expectations. In a more individualistic society or when dealing with employees from this type of background, there must be a system in place that recognises individual accomplishment, such as through the annual performance appraisal and allow more room for self-expression in day-to-day business operations. A global leader cannot be effective without recognising these social and cultural norms and identify diversity initiatives to assist in building more competent staff. Also under Hofstede’s model of cultural dimensions is an element of culture known as uncertainty avoidance, or the level to which an individual or group is willing to accept risk and the unknown. â€Å"People in uncertainty accepting cultures are more tolerant of conflicting opinions and try to have fewer rules† (Donnison, 2008, p.17). In opposite accord, people hailing from cultures with a more risk-averse mentality avoid unstructured decision-making and generally demand contingency plans before accepting risk. A global leadership regime must recognise these differences and develop an organisational structure to fit these attitudes and build human resources-backed policies to assist in promoting or accepting these varying values. A business culture with a high

The Distribution of Primary Goods by Nozick and Rawls Essay

The Distribution of Primary Goods by Nozick and Rawls - Essay Example He contends that if individuals have acquired their share in the distribution in a fair manner, without violating the rights of other people, then the distribution is just. Since such acquisitions are made using the natural talents that individuals possess, he argues that injustice cannot contend in the allocation and use of natural talents. The system whereby such distributions have resulted are the result of gifts or acquisitions made on the basis of individual initiative, which is just, as a result, the distribution resulting out of it is also just. Rawls, however, offers a different view on the distribution of primary assets, viewing it on the basis of its end outcome. He contends that since the outcome is an unjust distribution of primary assets in society, it is morally repugnant and must be redressed through the input from social and legal establishments by providing equality in opportunity for access to those resources to all individuals. Nozick’s theory of justice is based upon the â€Å"entitlement theory of holdings†, wherein the question of justice in acquisition is determined by the manner in which the property is acquired rather than the final outcome itself. Property may be transferred either through gift giving or by free exchange selling. Both these methods are undertaken voluntarily and there is no coercion at all that is involved in one person passing on a property to another. (Nozick, 151). He argues that when land does not belong to anyone at first, then a just acquisition process would allow someone to own it legitimately and claim it as theirs, so long as they do not make anyone else worse off in the process. Nozick’s theory of justice is, therefore, a system of pure procedural justice, where the important aspect to be considered is the process and system by which distributions are made, rather than the final outcome of that distribution.

Wk11(31)disc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Wk11(31)disc - Essay Example However, in saying that she went to Baylor Medical Center Emergency room, someone could check the date and probably find out who she was if they were looking. This is one area where the clients confidentially is compromised. Also, stating the entire information about the trial, the fact that it was "lengthy" and the fact that the stepfather denied having done anything wrong would possibly be traceable to a well publicized court case. It is not necessary in this writers opinion to give all the details of the rape. Although it is important to note that she comes to the counseling session because of "anxiety, hypervigilence, nightmares, flashbacks of the rape, and ruminative guilt" are what should be emphasized in the report instead of the exact details of the rape. Also, the report is not written in a professional manner but has the tone of someone wanting to make sure all the "juicy details" are present in the report. According to Nail (1990) an intake interview should have enough relevant information to lead the counselor towards a conclusion about the type of therapeutic interventions that are needed. In order to do this, it is important to organize the data into a logical structure and to develop it chronologically (Nail, 1990). In this sense, the information about the rape should have been categorized differently and it should have been more professionally written. I would feel very uncomfortable showing this report to the client. I would think that they would be upset about all the details in it and this could escalate her anxiety. I think that the report reads like a soap opera rather than a formal intake review. Harvey (1997) states that reports can be readable and without much jargon so that anyone can understand them (p. 273) but this therapist was reporting more than was comfortable for this writer. I also think that the therapist may have been appalled at what

Definition a glance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Definition a glance - Essay Example Unlike before when personal conversations are rather necessitated for important discussions, today, agreements can already be achieved using social networking sites, e-mail, and text messaging. Moreover, business activities are greatly upheaved; production level has risen. Newly invented machines like the automated guided vehicles and industrial robots make significant contributions to the economy. These technologies have maintained the level of productivity and provided more accuracy considering that these technologies can work non-stop with precision, which precludes the delays thereby ensuring business profit. Lastly, technological innovation has also affected human behaviour and ethics. Due to the prevalent availability of and the ease of access to the internet, more people are using this means to conduct illegal trades. In developing countries, cybersex is rampant – utilizing minors to carry out profane online businesses. What is worst is that more people have become fascinated with such kinds of activity because of how easy earnings can be obtained. Technological innovation is a good manifestation of modernization. This means that people have adopted avant-gardism and modernistic views. While technology brings so much improvement in our economy, lifestyle, healthcare, etc.; nevertheless, sometimes, it is also being used in the wrong way. The bottom line, however, is that technological innovation inspired so many transformations in the society: good and bad. â€Å"For a long time I used to go to bed early (Lawall, 2003)† is the well-known opening of the novel. The speaker tells his episodic encounters of arising from slumber without having any perception of his present state or location. It demands an instant of strain of establishing his thoughts and reclaiming his ego. It also suggests at the point where what comes next will involve the speaker with regaining back his identity, locating himself, and

International Public Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

International Public Law - Essay Example Furthermore, policy-making is intensely prejudiced by the media, which tends to form communal views. The process of policy creation set up objectives from side to side conflict decree making solutions to policy troubles affecting a group of people. However, policy reply are often influenced since of insufficient information, middling policy design, and bad executive, due to influential media and additional interest group, and unproductive implementation. This income that the policy process is frequently not what the public was appears for in the primary place. By civilizing processes such as the foreword of reforms of the scheme, and media control, improved policy organization could be complete. The aim of international law is to check the behaviour among states since where there exists a society of states, the preservation of law and order becomes necessary. A state will, as a broad rule, do its utmost to act inside the confines of the structure of policy which make up international law. Any state disregarding these broad principles of peaceful and supportive cohabitation among states runs the risk of incurring the condemnation of the fellow states in the community. Such condemnation will hardly ever limit itself to a "tag" of bad standing, but could even lead to harsh consequences. International Public Laws: Present international law usually recognised as having its origin in the Middle Ages in Western Europe - where, at the time, procedure of decentralisation most important away from Roman Catholic Church plus Holy Roman Empire towards the Reformation plus rise of Nation-States - "Natural law", specified universalist territory and Church, originally theological (including divine exposure as one of its sources) - though by time of Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) natural law adopting a rationalist approach, being seen to gain from worldwide reason - Independence and parity of States interpret into need for consent - clear tension flanked by natural law plus notion of permission 2) Brief History of International Public Law In 1980 Dwight Waldo write that social discipline, which includes public administration, did not abandon ethics as some had optional but instead rejected bearing in mind ethics (4). Since that time, for a diversity of reasons, principles as a focus of notice in public administration has grown progressively or explode, depending on your tip of view, in academic- and practitioner-oriented investigate. The text in the area is vast, and numerous appraisals catalogue it. Rather than create a new set of categories, a brief account here can usually describe this corpse of literature for there purposes. For the sake of shortness, we primarily make very good reference for principles in public management to the Handbook of managerial Ethics, shortened by Terry L. Cooper, which is a new, comprehensive book containing 29 envoy public administration pieces on principles with numerous references. A recent conference in

CBRN Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear weapons Essay - 4

CBRN Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear weapons - Essay Example in the fields of nuclear science and technology, a wide range of destructive weapons have been introduced that can be used to cause massive destruction in the targeted areas. If we talk about the United States of America, we can say that the United States has been on the red list of the terrorists for a long time because of its efforts towards establishing and stabilizing democracy and peace in the world. This paper includes a discussion of nuclear weapons as the weapons of mass destruction, as well as some non-state actors that pose this threat. Along with this, the paper also includes a discussion on the ways this threat can be mitigated by the government of the United States in the event that suspected states actually make an attack. The thesis statement for this paper is that ‘there is a continuous threat of the use of nuclear weapons by Al-Qaeda (non-state actor) and Iran (state actor) against the forces of the United States; hence, a well-planned strategy should be followed to mitigate the potential threat’. The type of weapons of mass destruction to be discussed in this paper is nuclear bomb. Nuclear bombs have been the most deadly weapon of mass destruction since their development. These bombs have been used against Japan during the Second World War in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki causing thousands of casualties. The countries that possess these weapons include the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Russia, France, China, North Korea, India, and Pakistan. Among all these states, Pakistan is considered the most risky nuclear state because of presence of Al-Qaeda terrorist group and some other extremist and terrorist groups in the country. Pakistan is also one of those states that have not signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) that ensures the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Moreover, the large-scale presence of Al-Qaeda in the region makes Pakistan the most risky and dreadful nuclear state of the world that can pose severe

International Public Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

International Public Law - Essay Example Furthermore, policy-making is intensely prejudiced by the media, which tends to form communal views. The process of policy creation set up objectives from side to side conflict decree making solutions to policy troubles affecting a group of people. However, policy reply are often influenced since of insufficient information, middling policy design, and bad executive, due to influential media and additional interest group, and unproductive implementation. This income that the policy process is frequently not what the public was appears for in the primary place. By civilizing processes such as the foreword of reforms of the scheme, and media control, improved policy organization could be complete. The aim of international law is to check the behaviour among states since where there exists a society of states, the preservation of law and order becomes necessary. A state will, as a broad rule, do its utmost to act inside the confines of the structure of policy which make up international law. Any state disregarding these broad principles of peaceful and supportive cohabitation among states runs the risk of incurring the condemnation of the fellow states in the community. Such condemnation will hardly ever limit itself to a "tag" of bad standing, but could even lead to harsh consequences. International Public Laws: Present international law usually recognised as having its origin in the Middle Ages in Western Europe - where, at the time, procedure of decentralisation most important away from Roman Catholic Church plus Holy Roman Empire towards the Reformation plus rise of Nation-States - "Natural law", specified universalist territory and Church, originally theological (including divine exposure as one of its sources) - though by time of Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) natural law adopting a rationalist approach, being seen to gain from worldwide reason - Independence and parity of States interpret into need for consent - clear tension flanked by natural law plus notion of permission 2) Brief History of International Public Law In 1980 Dwight Waldo write that social discipline, which includes public administration, did not abandon ethics as some had optional but instead rejected bearing in mind ethics (4). Since that time, for a diversity of reasons, principles as a focus of notice in public administration has grown progressively or explode, depending on your tip of view, in academic- and practitioner-oriented investigate. The text in the area is vast, and numerous appraisals catalogue it. Rather than create a new set of categories, a brief account here can usually describe this corpse of literature for there purposes. For the sake of shortness, we primarily make very good reference for principles in public management to the Handbook of managerial Ethics, shortened by Terry L. Cooper, which is a new, comprehensive book containing 29 envoy public administration pieces on principles with numerous references. A recent conference in

International entrepreneurship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International entrepreneurship - Essay Example This definition of international entrepreneurship arises from the fact that IE arises from the desire to expand their operation beyond the borders of the countries of their operation. International entrepreneurship is becoming increasingly important in many economies around the world as corporations take advantage of the vast opportunities availed by globalization. Consequently, companies, both small and large multinationals, are increasing finding it necessary to expand their operations into other countries or regions so that that they can tap the numerous benefits availed by such ventures. Hence, a perfect definition for international entrepreneurship must entail the desire to create a successful business venture in a country different than the present country of operation. My definition captures this aspect of IE. Although the wording used in defining IE differs from one scholar to another, almost all of the definitions point to one area: that of seeking out and conducting new and innovative business activities across national borders. For example, McDougall and Oviatt (903) define IE as ‘a combination of innovative, proactive, and risk-seeking behavior that crosses national borders and is intended to create value in organizations’. ... McDougall and Oviatt go a step further in their definition to state that IE creates value in an organization. This is absolutely right as IE elevates the profile of a company to that of a multinational, particularly if it establishes markets in numerous international markets. Expansion into foreign markets also adds value in form the company gaining skills and experience from the challenges and successes realized in the foreign markets. The same concept is captured in by Zahra and George’s definition of IE when they mention that companies establish operations in foreign markets in pursuit of competitive advantage. Another definition for IE was given by IE scholars meeting in 2008. Taking into consideration McDougall and Oviatt’s definition, the scholars aimed to expand this earlier definition to make it more concise and add an outcome or value to it. After consultations amongst themselves, they defined IE as â€Å"the creation of economic value through cross-border ent repreneurial activity† (ie-scholars discussion). This latest definition simply echoes those made earlier, particularly that made by McDougall and Oviatt. However, they add the aspect of value creation through exports and imports. Due to the recent emergence of globalization and creation of trading blocs such as the EU, AU, and NAFTA it has become necessary to create a distinction between international entrepreneurship from traditional entrepreneurship. While both types of entrepreneurships involve innovation, risk-seeking behavior, and creatively discovering and exploiting opportunities, the former transcends national borders or goes beyond the company’s domestic market while the latter is concentrated within

Psychodynamic Theory Essay Example for Free

Psychodynamic Theory Essay What Psychodynamic Theory Has to Contribute to Our Understanding of   Counselling in a Multicultural Society? If counsellors are to discern very well their clients of diverse backgrounds or culture and their place in a multicultural society, psychodynamic theory may be particularly helpful in this respect. Theories and techniques used in counselling are diverse and it is imperative for counsellors to know how to use their knowledge of psychodynamic theory in conceptualising systems for both counselling and therapy. In psychodynamic therapy, which is an approach in counselling based on psychoanalytic theories, it is postulated that conscious and unconscious influences mold human behavior and social relationships. This concept of the unconscious is often associated with Sigmund Freud whose contribution in psychoanalysis can not be discounted. Psychoanalytic theory though, is not exclusively Freudian. Freud’s brilliant ideas and theories, were controversial. His theories were under attack from many directions and it was a good thing though that from his perspectives, many other psychoanalytic theories emerged as well. Carl Jung was famous for his collective unconscious and his oriental approach was unorthodox for Western psychoanalytic theorists. D.D. Winnicott’s transitional objects and good- enough mothering for instance, are interesting contributions to psychoanalysis as well. It should be fascinating to explore these theorists’ contribution to systems and approaches of multicultural counselling. In as much as these theorists’ perspectives seem to have distinct or even conflicting orientations, we may have the chance to look upon their theories, in many ways, complementary in the practice of counselling in a multicultural society. Their theories can prove to be useful at any point in counselling (or therapy) sessions in understanding clients, their unique history, individual concerns, and understanding their behavior, the impact of their past experiences to their present condition in life, and some of their underlying motives and beliefs. Sigmund Freud   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychoanalytic approaches to therapy and counselling originated from the works of Sigmund Freud. He viewed that people are driven by unconscious influences, a part of their inner world of which they are not aware of. He theorised that repressed unconscious thoughts and feelings could manifest through dreams, fantasies and odd behavior. Until after these repressed forbidden desires, hurtful memories and experiences are brought to conscious awareness, these were presumed to lead to irrational and maladaptive behavior. Based on this concept, effective counsellors can effectively draw upon these repressed thoughts and emotions through psychotherapy to ease their client’s depression or anxiety and to rebuild their client’s self-esteem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Freud’s concept of eros (sexual and life instincts) and thanatos (aggressive and death instincts) are considered motivating factors of personality, with the term libido referring to basic energy of life associated with Eros. Troubled individuals may manifest death instincts through destructive behavior such as, alcoholism, substance abuse, aggression (towards self or others), and even suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Freud theorised that the individual’s behavior is assumed to result from the interaction of three components of the personality: id, ego, and superego. The id is said to be the source of instinctual drives and operate in terms of the pleasure principle. It is capable of eliciting mental images and wish-fulfilling fantasies (Coleman, 1980).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The second personality component is the ego, which intercedes between the demands of the id and the external world, and operates in terms of the reality principle. For instance, Freud believed that sexual or aggressive tendencies are in conflict with society’s rules and prohibitions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It was clever of Freud to introduce the third personality component, which is the superego, or commonly known as conscience. If one has learned and adapted to the moral demands of society, the individual would have a better grasp of what is right from wrong. The superego serves as personality’s system of control to inhibit immoral desires.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Freud believed in the interplay between the id, ego and superego, and how it becomes crucial to behavior. Inner conflicts may arise because the id, ego and superego are striving for different goals. Inner conflicts could manifest as a mental disorder if not resolved. Another important psychoanalytic concept of Freud is defense mechanisms. For him, whatever pains or anxieties are eased by distorting reality, if one can not deal with it rationally (Coleman, et.al., p. 54). Therefore, an individual’s distorted perception of reality poses behavior problems. This only happens though when the ego can no longer cope with the pain or anxiety by rational measures. Freud’s contribution to developmental psychology is his theory on five Psychosexual stages: the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.   He believed that these stages of development could determine one’s defenses, anxieties, and impulses. A child who has been deprived of fully experiencing any of these stages may suffer fixation at that stage of development. The first three stages of development, the oral, anal, and phallic stages, are the most crucial, as one’s personality is molded at this time. If fixation happens at any point during this period, then the child would likely develop distinct personality type. From birth to 1 year (oral stage), the mouth is the principal erogenous zone and it is assumed that an infant’s greatest source of gratification is sucking. If the caregiver is overindulgent or depriving, then the child is likely to develop fixation at this stage. Some traits associated with overindulgence are optimism, manipulativeness, boldness and admiration. On the other hand, deprivation would lead to traits such as pessimism, suspiciousness, self-belittlement, passivity, and jealousy. Further, as Freud theorised, fixation at this stage, or when the individual did not receive adequate oral gratification during infancy, the individual is predisposed to excessive drinking or eating in adult life. When the child is about 18 months to 3 years (anal stage), the anus and rectum are considered to be the primary sources of pleasure. Either an excessive demand or permissiveness from a child’s caregiver, will lead to the development of anal personality. Other psychological problems that are thought to arise from this stage are obsessive-compulsivity and paranoia. During the phallic stage, or when the child is about 3 to 6 years old, the penis or clitoris is assumed to be the major source of pleasurable sensation. At this stage, the child learns to manipulate the genitals and becomes curious about the opposite sex. Curiously enough, Freud also believed that it is at this stage when the child develops intense sexual feelings for the parent of the opposite sex, or otherwise known as Oedipus and Electra complex. The Oedipal complex is the perception that boys desire to possess their mother. Freud thought that boys have incestuous cravings for their mother, even sees their father as rival, but they have fear that the father will harm them (castration anxiety). Likewise, the Electra complex is the assumption that girls desire their father, and want to replace their mother. The fear of the same-sex parent leads to sublimation of their sexual attraction for the opposite sex parent into non-sexual love, and they learn to identity instead to their same-sex parent.   For either sex, it imperative for them to resolve the conflict, such that when they enter young adulthood stage, they are likely to have a satisfactory heterosexual relationship. In the years from 6 to 12 (latency stage), sexual motivations are put aside and the child channels his energy into school, play, shared activities with friends, and sports. Finally, the genital stage, which is from puberty onwards, the deepest feelings of pleasure come from heterosexual relations. At this stage, the individual channels his energy into socially acceptable ventures such as entering into romantic relationships, establishing friendships, career planning and also some recreational activities.   Freud’s cathartic hypnosis was popular during his time, but more than the technique of hypnosis as a therapeutic cure to psychological illnesses, was his concept that feelings were drawn from the unconscious. His contribution stands out in the sense that he was the one who developed techniques such as free association and dream analysis in dealing with both the conscious and unconscious aspects of mental health. Freud emphasized the role of the unconscious motives and ego-defense systems, and the importance of early childhood experiences in the personality adjustment and maladjustment of adults, as well as the relevance of sexual factors in human behavior and mental disorders (Coleman, et.al., p. 57). Freud’s techniques now used in contemporary psychodynamic counselling provide much deeper understanding of the (client’s) self, and can prove to be helpful in emotional, spiritual development and self-awareness. Carl Jung   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the most original and controversial features of Jung’s theory on personality was the concept of collective unconscious. He theorised the existence of universally shared motives, drives, potentials, fears and symbols that human beings have more or less the same collective unconscious. Collective unconscious is defined as the â€Å"storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from one’s ancestral past† (Hall Lindzey, 1978, p. 119). Simply put, with this theory, there is probability of reviving experiences of past generations. â€Å"Humans are born with many predisposition for thinking, feeling, and perceiving according to definite patterns and contents that become actualized through individualized experiences† (Hall Lindzey).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If Freud’s â€Å"unconscious mind† is often associated with repressed forbidden desires, hurtful memories and experiences, Jung’s collective unconscious is a vast resource of subliminal contents and potential, which includes the â€Å"wisdom and experience of uncounted centuries, and laid down in its archetypal organs† (Jung, cited in Hall Lindzey, p.120). The collective unconscious can then serve a very good purpose to the individual. But, if this ignored by the ego, â€Å"the unconscious may disrupt the conscious rational processes by seizing hold of them and twisting them into distorted forms (Hall Lindzey, p.120).   Instances of irrational behavior could arise such as phobias and delusions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jung believed that the individual achieves completeness or wholeness only as fantasies, images and dreams from the personal and collective unconscious become accessible to the conscious self (Coleman, et.al., p.58).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jung’s concept of archetypes refers to patterns of behavior within the unconscious mind. The most common of these archetypes are the persona, shadow, self, and anima and animus. The persona is tantamount to the social personality the â€Å"face† an individual has in his social relationships. A healthy persona could then mean good adaptation to the demands of society or the environment where one belongs. In some respects, Jung’s concept of the persona is similar to Freud’s superego. The shadow has some resemblance to Freud’s concept of the id. It is considered the hidden or dark side of personality that sometimes the individual is not even aware of. This part of the psyche would be difficult to accept. If a certain trait of another distress an individual, then this could be a reflection of his shadow. Traits such as laziness, attention-seeking, anger expression, etc., are usually kept from consciousness and is often projected to others. The self can be considered the sum total of one’s personality, the motivating factor of human behavior that causes one to constantly strive and attain wholeness. It was Jung’s view that the self can only emerge only if various aspects of the personality have fully developed (known as individuation) (Hall Lindzey, p. 124). Thus, this does not happen until one has reached middle age when one â€Å"begins to make a serious effort to change the center of personality from the conscious ego to one that is midway between consciousness and unconsciousness† (Hall Lindzey). Jung believed that one takes the journey toward individuation, spending almost half of his life individuating, and the second integrating. This concept has direct application and relevance to career counselling. Notice that most individuals who reach middle age begin to have more focus and sense of purpose, not wasting their time and energy where they do not fit or are not welcome, and extending effort only in activities that will lead them to their true calling. Somewhat parallel to Freud’s Oedipus and Electra complex which prove relevant to understanding one’s heterosexual adjustment is Jung’s anima and animus. This is much like the â€Å"yin and yang† of the Chinese, the masculine and feminine side of human personality. The role of biological hormones cannot be discounted, but from a Jungian perspective, this is more considered to be a product of racial experiences of man with woman and vice versa. Jung’s anima and animus may be of relevance in understanding man-woman relationships in a counselling setting. Man is supposed to â€Å"apprehend the nature of woman by virtue of his anima, and woman apprehends the nature of man by virtue of her animus† (Hall Lindzey, p. 123), and without regard to the real character of the other, their relationship will most likely lead to discord. Donald Winnicott   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The influential concepts of transitional objects, the good-enough mother and the true and false self are attributed to Winnicott. A transitional object is some sort of a security blanket for a child. It could be a favorite stuffed toy, baby blanket, pillow or any symbolic object that a child finds comfort in having. A transitional object helps a child cope with fear while their principal caregiver is away. The most influential person (object) during a child’s development would be the principal caregiver. In a counselling setting, the counselor serves as the transitional object, who gradually helps his client overcome frustrations and develop greater independence over time. The good-enough mother pertains to the principal caregiver whose parenting style fit the child’s developmental needs. Winnicott believed that caregivers have to be good-enough in providing the child’s needs, but not too much. They have to teach children as well to tolerate frustrations, and teach them the lesson of independence and self-sufficiency. Winnicott theorized that children’s needs, if not adequately met, could help develop a false self (this is somehow identical to Freud’s concept of fixation). On the other hand, when children’s needs are adequately provided, then, they are likely to develop a true self. A relationship based on trust, a relationship that is more real, will grow between the caregiver and the child. This concept may apply to counselor (or therapist)-client relationship. An effective counselor knows how to provide a safe â€Å"holding environment† for his client, and is adaptive to his client’s needs. The counselor knows how to respond to his client’s emotions with warmth and empathy, thus helping his client reveal his true self. References Coleman, James C., James N. Butcher and Robert C. Carson. Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life (6th ed.). Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company. Dakai, S.H. (2003). â€Å"Addiction Counseling: Examination of Various Addiction Counseling and Therapy Approaches.† Journal of Addictive Disorders. Breining Institute. Hall, Calvin S. and Lindzey Gardner (1980). Theories of Personality (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley Sons. McGinnis, James D. and Kenneth R.Thomas (1991). The Psychoanalytic Theories of D.W. Winnicott as Applied to Rehabilitation. The Journal of Rehabilitation. 1 July 1991

The Fury of Overshoes Essay -- Literary Analysis, Anne Sexton

Peter Pan never wanted to grow up, for he always wanted to be a boy and have fun. On the other hand, the general argument made by author, Anne Sexton, in her poem, â€Å"The Fury of Overshoes,† is that childhood is most appreciated when a person must be independent. A university student finds that he can relate to the speaker. The high school student, still a child himself, will feel the same as the speaker in her youth. A college student and a high school student reading this poem would conclude this poem with different feelings. In the first half of the poem, the speaker reminds readers of childhood. She presents the readers with imagery, a form of descriptive language, by illustrating the colorful overshoes lined up against the wall of the kindergarten, â€Å"black, red, brown, all/ with those brass buckles† (lines 1-5). This part of the poem helps the reader settle into the setting and mindset of the speaker. She repeats â€Å"remember... remember,† inviting the readers to recall their childhood, how everything looked then, and how different aspects of life mattered (5, 15). â€Å"You couldn't/ buckle your own/ overshoe,† the speaker states as she continues to list the difficulties, failures, and impossibilities of life as a child (5-9). As children, people are completely dependent on others to do things for them and correct the world around them. It is frustrating for children to not be able to accomplish even simple, self-help tasks. There are a couple of similes the author uses in the poem to stress the helplessness she felt in childhood. In the lines, â€Å"The tears/ running down like mud† (11,12), the reader may notice the words sliding down the page in lines 12-14 like mud and tears that flowed in childhood days. The speaker compares a... ...k I can transition into a more mature person. I experienced a happier childhood than Sexton, so I admire my former dependence and joyful memories; however, she wishes to be as a child and have her responsibility taken off of her shoulders. Growing out of childhood is required, but not forgetting it. Children take life for granted and wish their time away for adulthood. For instance, several children's games mimic adult life and fool children into believing a career as an adult is all the fun they imagined it would be. They spend numerous hours walking with tiny steps in the adult world wanting to mature into it. Later in life, those children have grown into adults and now look back with envy while new children are coddled. Most adults will always look back on their youth and wish it had passed more slowly. They may wish they never had to become [the big people].

Case Study Of Carnival Corporation :: Business Marketing management Essays

Case Study Of Carnival Corporation The history of the Carnival Corporation begins in 1972, when Ted Arison set up Carnival Cruise Lines as a subsidiary of the American International Travel Service. The first ship ran aground, but Arison remained steadfast in achieving his vision of a cruise line offering affordable vacation packages to middle-income consumers. By 1977, Carnival had three ships, and ten years later, as the industry leader, the company went public. In the early 1990s, Carnival began to diversify into land-based entertainment, thus changing its name to Carnival Corp. The company is the world's #1 cruise operator with about a third of the market. Carnival Corporation is comprised of Carnival Cruise Lines; the world's largest cruise line based on passengers carried, Holland America Line, Windstar Cruises and Seabourn Cruise Line. It owns 25 cruise ships serving customers worldwide and has 6 new ships under construction. It basically has three market segments: Contemporary, Premium and Luxury. Carnival also operates 14 hotels in Alaska and Canada and runs Holland America Westours, which markets sightseeing tours. Carnival has a 29.5% stake in Airtours, one of the UK's largest tour operators, and is bidding for control of cruise line NCL. CEO Micky Arison and family control Carnival. Carnival was able to increase profits through the acquisition of Holland America Line in 1988 and consequently Carnival expanded its cruise lines to a broader market, however Carnival experienced a loss of $135 million from disposal of the Crystal Palace Resort & Casino in 1991. The company’s current strategy is to attract more repeat cruisers and new cruisers of different segments by offering different types of packages. Such differences include choice of shorter or longer cruises, a low to moderate price for affordable cruises for middle class, and longer luxury cruises for affluent classes. As part of the company’s plan, Carnival is "going global" through a joint venture with Hyundai Merchant Marine to the Asia market. Strengths Carnival’s strategy focused on the "Fun Ship" concept, beginning with the Mardi Gras, which targeted people of all ages. In recent years the driving force behind why a person needs to take a vacation has changed. Today vacationers look to get away from everyday stress, and opt for a stress-relieving cruise. Carnival is considered the cruise industry’s leader, and in the past few years, Carnival has increased its market share through acquisition and joint venture. In 1988, Carnival acquired Holland America Line to expand its market share in Alaska, Mediterranean, and South Pacific.

Why is exercise Important?

Have you ever heard the impression â€Å"use it or lose it â€Å"? Well it is true if you don’t use your body, you will surely lose it. Your muscles will become flabby and weak. You heart and lungs wont function efficiently, an your joints will be stiff and easily injured. Inactivity is as much of a health risk as smoking. It also helps prevent diseases, our bodies were meant to move they actually crave exercise; regular exercise is necessary for physical fitness and good health. It reduces the risk of heart disease, cancer, high blood pressure, diabetes and many other diseases. It also can improve your appearance and delay the aging process. It helps improves stamina, because when you exercise, your body uses energy to keep going. Aerobic exercise involves continues and rhythmic physical motion, such as walking and bicycling. It improves your stamina by training your body to become more efficient and use less energy for the same amount of work, as your conditioning level improves your heart rate and breathing rate return to resting levels much sooner from strenuous activity. Exercise is also a key to weight control because it burns calories. If you burn off more calories than you take in, you lose weight. It is as simple as that. Once you begging to exercise regularly, you will discover many more reasons why exercise is so important to improving the quality of your life. Exercise reduce stress, lift moods, and helps you sleep better. It can keep you looking and felling younger throughout your entire life. How often should you exercise? The benefits of any exercise program will diminish if it is disrupted too frequently. A â€Å"stop-start routine is not only ineffective, but can cause injuries. Being consistent with exercise, therefore, is probably the most important factor in achieving desired results.

Protection of Refugees in India

PROTECTION OF REFUGEES IN INDIA Deepak Shahi and Navrati Dongrey 2nd year B. A LL. B (Hons) . Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law, Patiala, Punjab ABSTRACT The development of the society and the nation brings with itself a lot of problems also. There are a lot of problems faced by India, be it gender issues, poverty, unemployment etc. one of these burning issues is the protection of refugees. Refugees are those people who have migrated from other country seeking shelter and protection. This paper deals with the various efforts taken to protect them at the national as well as international level. The concept of protection refugees in India dates back to the partition in 1947, which brought in India millions of refugees. Then came the creation of Bangladesh which invited refugees who settled in eastern states. The lack of uniform law governing the refugees has created chaos and dealing with the problem. The instable social, political and economic condition in the neighboring countries had led to the settlement of natives of these countries in India, as India is considered to be a very easy destination to live in illegally. There are lot of problem being faced by the government to tackle the growing number of refugees. The lack of strict vigil of the bordering states is one the reason for the settlement of refugees in India. This paper studies the protection provide by the Indian government to refuges and deals with the problem faced by them. In the end there is the conclusion and some suggestion given by us regarding the issue of protection. INTRODUCTION India’s multifariousness, constancy and relatively well established rule of law have made it a natural terminus for people fleeing persecution, ill-treatment, imbalance and instability in their own countries. Within the South Asian region, India stands out as an exception of tolerant, liberal, democratic and secular government in a neighborhood of unstable, fickled and volatile states. India has historically faced a legion of influxes over many millennia and the ability of these people to integrate into a multi-ethnic society and contribute peacefully to local cultures and economies has strengthened the perception of India being a country traditionally hospitable to refugees. India shares seven land borders and one sea border with countries in varied states of strife and war; and, over the years, has hosted large refugee populations not only from neighbouring countries but also from the countries outside the Indian subcontinent. Throughout the world and over the centuries, societies have welcomed frightened, weary strangers, the victims of persecution and violence. This humanitarian tradition of offering sanctuary is often now played out on television screens across the globe as war and large-scale persecution produce millions of refugees and internally displaced persons. Yet even as people continue to flee from threats to their lives and freedom, governments are, for many reasons, finding it increasingly difficult to reconcile their humanitarian impulses and obligations with their domestic needs and political realities. At the start of the 21st century, protecting refugees means maintaining solidarity with the world’s most threatened, while finding answers to the challenges confronting the international system that was created to do just that. [1] REFUGEE A person who is outside his or her country of nationality or habitual residence; has a well-founded fear of persecution because of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion; and is unable or unwilling to avail himself or herself of the rotection of that country, or to return there, for fear of persecution. [2] According to the humanitarian definition, a refugee is someone who has fled his country because he has a well-founded fear of persecution if he remains. The major obligation of refugee protection is the principle of non-refoulement, which ensures that a person is not returned to a life-threatening situation. [3] Refugees are a subgroup of the broader category of  displaced persons. Refugees flee because of the threat of persecution and cannot return safely to their homes in the prevailing circumstances. Persons, who have participated in war crimes and violations of humanitarian and human rights law including the crime of terrorism, are specifically excluded from the protection accorded to refugees. [4] Also Environmental refugees (people displaced because of  environmental  problems such as  drought) are not included in the definition of â€Å"refugee† under  international law, as well as  internally displaced people. Refugees are people who have demonstrated to the Immigration and Nationality Directorate that they have a well grounded fear of being persecuted in their home country for reasons of: †¢ Race Religion †¢ Nationality Or membership of a particular: †¢ Social group †¢ Political opinion These conditions are laid down in the 1951 United Nations Convention relating to the status of refugees to which the United Kingdom is a signatory. Sometimes people cannot meet the criteria laid down in the 1951 United Nations Convention but may be allowe d to stay in the United Kingdom on humanitarian grounds for a limited period of time. Refugees have the same rights and responsibilities as any other citizen, including rights associated with; †¢ Family reunion Welfare Benefits †¢ Work THE DEFINITION OF REFUGEES INCLUDES 1. That the person has to be outside their country of origin 2. The reason for their flight has to be a fear of persecution 3. This fear of persecution has to be well founded (i. e. they have to have experienced it or be likely to experience it if they return) 4. The persecution has to result from one or more of the five grounds listed in the definition 5. They have to be unwilling or unable to seek the protection of the authorities in their country[5] HOW IS REFUGEE DIFFERENT FROM ASYLUM SEEKER? An asylum seeker is a person who is seeking protection as a refugee and is still waiting to have his/her claim assessed. The Refugee Convention definition is used by the Australian Government to determine whether their country has protection obligations towards asylum seekers. If an asylum seeker who has reached Australia is found to be a refugee, Australia is obliged under international law to offer protection and to ensure that the person is not sent back unwillingly to a country in which they risk being prosecuted. 6] Refugees and asylum seekers are externally displaced people and cannot return Refugees and asylum seekers share their well-founded fear of persecution with internally displaced people (IDPs) who, although they have not crossed an international border, also cannot return to their homes. WHERE DO REFUGEES COME FROM? Most of the world’s recent refugees come from Afghanistan, Iraq and Colombia. Afghanistan continued to be the leading country of origin for refugees. As of the end of 2007, there were almost 3. million Afghan refugees, or 27 per cent of the global refugee population. Even though Afghan refugees were to be found in 72 asylum countries worldwide, 96 per cent of them were located in Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran alone. Iraqis were the second largest group, with 2. 3 million having sought refuge mainly in neighboring countries. Afghan and Iraqi refugees account for almost half of all refugees under UNHCR’s responsibility worldwide, followed by Colombians (552,000). [7] Top countries form where the Refugees originates Afghanistan |31,100,000 | |Iraq |23,00,000 | |Colombia |552,000 | |Sudan |523,000 | |Somalia |457,000 | |Burundi |376,000 | |DR Congo |370,000 | | | | Following countries takes Refugees Pakistan |2,033,000 | |Syria |1,503,800 | |Iran |963,500 | |Jordan |578,900 | |Germany |500,300 | |Tanzania |435,600 | |china |301,100 | |UK |299,700 | |Chad |294,000 | |us |281,200 | INDIAN CONTEXT India’s diversity, stability and relatively well established rule of law have made it a natural destination for people fleeing persecution and instability in their own countries. Within the South Asian region, India stands out as an exception of tolerant, democratic and secular government in a neighborhood of unstable and volatile states. India has historically faced numerous influxes over many millennia and the ability of these peoples to integrate into a multi-ethnic society and contribute peacefully to local cultures and economies has reinforced the perception of India being a country traditionally hospitable to refugees. India shares seven land borders and one sea border with countries in varied states of strife and war; and, over the years, has hosted large refugee populations from neighboring countries. India’s status as a preferred refugee harbor is confirmed by the steady flow of refugees from many of its sub continental neighbors as also from elsewhere. India continues to receive them despite its own over-a-billion population with at least six hundred million living in poverty with limited access to basic amenities. However, the Indian legal framework has no uniform law to deal with its huge refugee population, and has not made any progress towards evolving one either; until then, it chooses to treat incoming refugees based on their national origin and political considerations, questioning the uniformity of rights and privileges granted to refugee communities Indeed, the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) has submitted numerous reports. The current number of refugees and asylum seekers in India stands at approximately 435,900 according to the World Refugee Survey 2007 conducted by the United States Committee for Refugees and Immigrants (USCRI), and supported by the latest figures from the United Nations High Commissioner of Refugees (UNHCR). [8] India mostly plays host to refugees from its neighboring countries who are either forced to leave their countries of origin due to internal or external conflict, political persecution or human rights infringements. India has offered refugee status to asylum seekers from countries like china, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Bhutan. [9] The circumstance in which the refugee’s exodus from their country may vary from political persecution However, it is clear that all these refugee populations deserve their basic human rights and the assistance that can be afforded by the Government of India. To define the word ‘refugee’ in Indian legal terms is theoretically not possible since neither the Foreigner’s Act (1946) nor its amendments or additions, contains or defines the term. However, this study shall consider the definition propounded by a commission chaired by Justice P N Bhagwati in 1997,[10] whose task was to construct a uniform national law on refugees. Although the bill was never tabled in Parliament, the term ‘refugee’ was adequately defined in the ‘Model Law’ as either. There are no authoritative statistics on the number of people who have fled persecution or violence in their countries of origin to seek safety in India. However, because of India’s porous borders and accommodative policies, it was estimated that India hosted approximately 3, 30,000 such people in 2004. [11] It is estimated that over 20 lakh Nepalis fleeing from civil conflict have entered India undetected over the open border. There are also an unknown but large number of people displaced from Bhutan because of their ethnic-Nepali origins. [12] LEGAL SETUP FOR REFUGEE’S PROTECTION After the Second World War, the Refugee Convention was adopted with restricted geographical and temporal conditions to apply to post-War Europe In 1967, in an effort to give the Convention universal application, a Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees that removed the restrictions of the Convention was added. Together, these two key legal documents provide the basic framework for refugee protection across the world. As of February 2006, 146 countries were States Parties to either the Convention or its Protocol or both. However, India has repeatedly declined to join either the Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol. In addition, India has resisted demands for a national legislation to govern the protection of refugees The relative success that India has had with this approach, which is guided by political instinct free from legal obligation, has led to an institutional complacency towards legal rights-enabling obligations to refugees. There has also been a hardening of attitudes about foreigners in recent years in light of heightened security concerns. This has resulted in genuine refugees paying an unfortunate price in a country that otherwise has an impressive history of protecting refugees. FOREIGNER’S ACT, 1964 India relies on the Foreigners Act, 1946 to govern the entry, stay and exit of foreigners in India. However, the Foreigners Act is a primitive legislation that was enacted as a reaction to the need of Second World War in the colonial period. The continuity to deal with this legislation in independent India even after the independence only show the government’s desire to retain absolute power to deal with foreigner[13] and thus covering all refugees within its ambit as well. CONSTITUIONAL PROVISION Also some provision of the Indian Constitution[14] reflect that the rules of natural justice in common law systems are equally applicable in India, even to refugees. The established principle of rule of law in India is that no person, whether a citizen or an alien shall be deprived of his life, liberty or property without the authority of law. The Constitution of India expressly incorporates the common law precept and the Courts have gone further to raise it to the status of one of the basic features of  the Constitution  which cannot be amended. Courts may apply international law only when there is no conflict between international law and domestic law, and also if the provisions of international law sought to be applied are not in contravention of the spirit of  the Constitution  and national legislation, thereby enabling a harmonious construction of laws. It has also been firmly laid that if there is any such conflict, then domestic law shall prevail. [15] RESTRICTED PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUITION There are a few Articles of the Indian Constitution which are equally applicable to refugees on the Indian soil in the same way as they are applicable to the Indian Citizens The Supreme Court of India has consistently held that the Fundamental Right enshrined under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution regarding the Right to life and personal liberty, applies to all irrespective of the fact whether they are citizens of India or aliens. 16] The various High Courts in India have liberally adopted the rules of natural justice t o refugee issues, along with recognition of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) as playing an important role in the protection of refugees. The Hon’ble High Court of Guwahati has in various judgments,  recognized the refugee issue and permitted refugees to approach the UNHCR for determination of their refugee status, while staying the deportation orders issued by the district court or the administration. In the case of National Human Rights Commission v. State of Arunachal Pradesh [17]the Hon’ble Supreme Court held that refugees are a class apart from foreigners deserving of the protection of Article 21 of the Constitution. INDIAN’S CONCERN TOWARDS REFUGEE’S PROTECTION There have been a number of special legislative measures to deal with refugee influxes inspite of any law which makes refugees as a special class distinct from foreigner Special laws to deal with refugees have been used primarily by the various State Governments[18] There are three main way in which the Indian government deal with refugees are refugees in mass influx situations are received in camps and accorded temporary protection by the Indian Government including, sometimes, A. A certain measure of socio-economic protection B. Asylum seekers from South Asian countries, or any other country with which the government has a sensitive relationship, apply to the government for political asylum which is usually granted without an extensive refugee status determination subject, of course, to political exigencies C. Citizens of other countries apply to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for individual refugee status determination in accordance with th e terms of the UNHCR Statute and the Refugee Convention The first ‘foreign’ influx of refugees occurred in 1959 from Tibet when the government, politically uncomfortable with China, set up transit camps, provided food and medical supplies, issued identity documents and even transferred land for exclusive Tibetan enclaves across the country for cultivation and occupation along with government provided housing, healthcare and educational facilities. The Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, having arrived in India in three waves beginning in 1983, have also been relatively well received in the geographically and ethnically contiguous State of Tamil Nadu where a large degree of local integration has occurred. In comparison, the Chakma influxes of 1964 and 1968 saw a subdued and reluctant government response. [19] The largest mass influx in post-Partition history occurred in 1971 when approximately 16 million refugees from erstwhile East Pakistan sought safety in India. Although most of the refugees returned within a year, the experience left the Indian government both bitter at the non responsiveness of international organizations and complacent in the confidence of being able to deal with future mass influxes. Refugees who are not extended direct assistance by the Indian Government are free to apply to the UNHCR for recognition of their asylum claims and other assistance. The ambivalence of India’s refugee policy is sharply brought out in relation to its Treatment of the UNHCR. While no formal arrangement exists between the Indian government and the UNHCR, India continues to sit on the UNHCR’s Executive Committee in Geneva. India has not even signed refugees convention. It is paradoxical but true that India allows UNHCR to operate it on its territory despite of being entered into any legal treaty. REFUGEES RIGHT UNDER LAW IN INDIA Many experts in the area of refugee law believe that the more practical alternative to proposing an entirely new law is to push for changes in India’s current policy regarding refugees. As stated above, no current Indian law refers directly to refugees. Refugees thus fall under the purview of the legislative framework that addresses all foreigners in India in the same way, under the Foreigners Act 1946. The Act contains broad powers of detention subject to the discretion of the executive, and makes illegal entry into the country a crime punishable by up to 5 years with no exception for refugees and asylum seekers. Also pertinent to determining the rights of refugees in Indian law are two pre-independence enactments that enable the government to impose stringent conditions of entry and stay in India. This body of legislation indisputably gives the Indian executive excessive powers over foreigners in India, including  the power to restrict movement inside India, to mandate medical examinations, and to limit employment opportunities. This framework is problematic for refugees because the government’s unrestrained power of expulsion could possibly lead to  refoulement  and deny refugees their basis human rights while in India – in contravention of international obligations. The Extradition Act 1962 provides some protection to refugees facing extradition by restricting the government’s freedom to remove from its territory a particular category of foreigners. 20]  This restriction, however, is so narrowly relevant that it does not provide any real safeguards for the majority of refugees in India whose removal from the territory is most likely to fall under the category of  expulsion  rather than  extradition. INDIA’S INTERNATIONAL EFFORT IN TH E PROTECTION OF REFUGEES Although India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention or the 1967 Protocol, it is party to a number of international human rights instruments that create protection obligations toward refugees. Indian and other commentators from developing countries also call attention to the current state of flux in international refugee law. In a statement to the Executive Committee of the UNHCR in October 2003, the Indian Permanent Representative pointed out that the situation of refugee and migratory movements in the world today are vastly different from what they were when the UNHCR was created and this had to be reflected in practice to enhance the UNHCR’s ability to play a meaningful role. [21] THE 1951 REFUGEE CONVENTION The 1951 refugee’s convention is considered as an internationally agreed instrument and a mile stone in refugees protection, since as mentioned earlier in the definition[22]. A person becomes refugee as soon as he or she is in the situation, and not after a state has formally recognized him to be so. He automatically becomes entitled to the protection under this definition. The ‘well found fear’ is to be judged to the advantage of the claimant which should take into account the situation prevailing in his origin and his individual circumstances. ‘Persecution is not defined in the convention but has been interpreted to mean ‘a violation of someone’s basic human right of sufficient gravity that the protection of another state is needed’. [23] INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS (ICCPR) It recognizes the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable right of all member of the human family. It takes into account the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and character of the United Nation. It binds that state to conform to the spirit of the covenant ‘ each party to the covenant to respect and ensure to all individual within its territory the rights herein recognized without distinction of any kind via; race, color, sex, language, political or other opinion national or social origin property birth or other status. [24] CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Although India’s past efforts in dealing with mass influxes has been commendable, its geopolitical position in the subcontinent makes it a preferred destination for asylum seekers and migrant workers. It can be easily seen from the foregoing paragraphs that India notwithstanding its own security concerns, particularly in the last couple of decades, and pressure of population and the attendant economic factors, continues to take a humanitarian view of the problem of refugees. Even though the country has not enacted a special law to govern ‘refugees’, it has not proved to be a serious handicap in coping satisfactorily with the enormous refugee problems besetting the country. The spirit and contents of the UN and International Conventions on the subject have been, by and large, honoured through executive as well as judicial intervention. By this means, the country has evolved a practical balance between human and humanitarian obligations on the one hand and security and national interest on the other. The need for a refugee law is immediate. The uniform treatment of refugees is a must as long as India continues to accept asylum seekers across its porous borders. The restrictions and unequal treatment imposed on the refugee population by the Indian government is discriminatory and tarnishes its human rights record, which is not outstanding in any case. India can require foreigners to reside in mandated areas, thereby barring their right of movement across the country, and providing India the ability to confine foreigners to refugee camps and conduct periodic camp inspections. One of the concerns that the host states have is the environmental degradation, which results from the activities of the refugees. The concern is real and needs to be addressed. In this regard the national law can place certain duties on the local administration, aid agencies, and on the refugee community. Often simple measures can avoid causing harm to the environment. For example in Bangladesh the UNHCR has distributed compressed rice husks as cooking fuel to all families in the refugee camps in order to minimize the collection of firewood and mitigate against deforestation around the camps. Since 1996, kerosene used for the ignition of the compressed rice husks is also being distributed to refugee families, to ensure that they do not need to collect firewood for this purpose. From the perspective of solutions, an important question which needs to be addressed concerns the problem of stateless persons in the region. For, among other things the problem of disputed nationality is the major obstacle in the process of repatriation. For example there are four large groups of stateless persons in the South Asian region. Despite the widespread consensus that detention should be viewed as an exceptional measure, a problem which confronts the refugees is detention without justification. The provision of the International Human Rights Law, which offers protection against arbitrary arrest and detention should be properly implemented. A key problem in India relates to the frequent denial of access to camps to NGOs and the UNHCR. While India may have legitimate concerns that motivate NGOs and states may indulge in disinformation to embarrass it before the international Community, the problem can be handled through establishing more effective communicative channels and diplomacy. The increasing emphasis of UNHCR in the last decade on voluntary repatriation as a solution meant that refugees are often returned against their will. Where return has been voluntary there needs to be thought given to devising effective mechanisms to ensure that the state of origin lives up to the promises which it had made in order to persuade refugee to return. Thus the chakma refugees who returned from India to the Chittagong Hill Tracts In Bangladesh found that the Government did little to give them back their lands, or to provide them with enough resources to guarantee a minimum standard of life. [25] Without any law or protocol, the Indian government has full autonomy to decide which rights and freedoms should be conferred upon which groups. Even ‘favored’ communities like the Tibetan refugees have suffered due to lack of a firm policy. There is also a need for a change in the law. The model law has not been sufficiently considered by the Union Government. For the last five years, the NHRC has been requesting the Government to provide refugee protection. Its present Chairman, A. S. Anand, has even set up a Committee to examine the law. The argument of terrorism and numbers having been met, there is no reason why the minimal protection against non-refoulement should not be enacted. This can probably be done even through rules. But the argument is not just over the Sri Lankan refugees, the Bangladeshis, the Afghans, the Bhutanese or the Myanmarese. It is whether India wants its voice on the world's most persecuted to be heard so as to mould future policy. If India is waiting for a cue from its neighbour, China has joined the convention and enacted refugee protection legislation. African countries have got together to devise both national and regional solutions. India needs to review its ambivalent refugee law policy, evolve a regional approach and enact rules or legislation to protect persecuted refugees. This is one step towards supporting a humanitarian law for those who need it. As a refugee-prone area, South Asia requires India to take the lead to devise a regional policy consistent with the region's needs and the capacity to absorb refugees under conditions of global equity. ———————– [1]Ms. Kate Jastram and Ms. Marilyn Achiron, Refugee Protection: A Guide to International Refugee Law, http://www. ipu. org/PDF/publications/refugee_en. pdf, (29 April 2010) [2] Article 1 of 1951 Refugee convention 1951 [3] Rajeev Dhavan, Refugee Law and Policy in India (New Delhi: PILSARC, 2004), p. 156. [4] Basic Facts, http://unhcr. org. ua/main. php? article_id=5&view=full ( 29 April 2010) [5] Article 1A(2) of the Refugee Convention, 1951 [6]Background information of refugees and asylum seeker http://www. refugeecouncil. org. au/docs/news&events/RW_Background_Information. pdf (visited on 26th march 2010) [7]World Refugee Survey 2007, United States Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, http://www. refugees. org/WRS_Archives/2007/48- 69. 27 march, 2010) [8] Rajeev Dhavan, On the Model Law for Refugees: A Response to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC),† NHRC Annual Reports 1997- 1998, 1999-2000 (New Delhi: PILSARC, 2003). [9] Drafted under the auspices of the Regional Consultations on Refugees and Migratory Movements in South Asia initiative in 1995, with Justice P N Bhagwati as the Chairperson of the Drafting Committee of the India-specific version of the national law on refugee protection. [10] Florina Benoit, India: A National Refugee Law Would Equalise Protection, Refugees International, 2004. [11] Asian Development Bank, Nepal Country Strategy and Programme 2005-2009. [12] Section 2(a) of the foreigner’s act, 1964 defines ‘foreigner’ as â€Å"a person who is not a citizen of India†. [13] Article 22(1), 22(2) and 25(1) of the Indian constitution [14] T. Ananthachari, Refugees In India: Legal Framework, Law Enforcement And Security http://www. worldlii. org/int/journals/ISILYBIHRL/2001/7. html, (1 April 2010) [15] Articles,14,20 and 21 of the Indian Constitution [16] AIR 1966 SCC 742 [17] UNHCR Statistical Yearbook – India, 2003, UNHCR Geneva. [18] National Human Rights Commission (1996) 1 SCC 742 at pr. 15 [19] V. K. Dewan, The Extradition Act 1962’  in Law of Citizenship Foreigners and Passports, 2nd ed, Allahabad: Orient Law House, 1987,  p. 515. [20] James Hathaway, The Emerging Politics of Non-Entree, Refugees, Migration Review Vol. 91, December, pp. 40-41. [21] Article 1A(2) of the Refugee Convention,